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Launch in Newgrounds Player. Author Comments. Newgrounds accounts are free and registered users see fewer ads! The reasoning for this is as follows: because males adjust the resource incentive offered based on the value of a given mate, the value of a male's short-term mates is expected to covary with the sum of his quality and the amount of his offered resource incentive which depends on the overall value of the female , but not necessarily his overall value.
Thus, the value of the females that he mates with will increase as a function of the resource amount offered; only a male's long-term mate is predicted to positively covary with his overall value. Indeed, the literature lends initial support for this predicted difference between the sexes although it has been previously unexplained as the predicted result of a rigorous model. Men's self-perceived mate value was found to be only weakly correlated with their mate selection standards, whereas women's mate value correlated positively with their minimum criteria for both long-term and short-term mates Regan, a.
Furthermore, as predicted by the MCT, the sex difference between the strength of these correlations was greater in the short-term than in the long-term mating context. The correlation between self-perceived mate value and mate selection standards strengthened for males as they moved from short-term to long-term mates, whereas positive correlation remained strong for females in both contexts.
Men and women are equally as choosy when choosing a long-term mate Buss, ; Regan, a. As a corollary of this, the existing data are also consistent with the prediction that the resource incentive yielded to the female acts as a decreasing function of a given male's quality prediction 3.
There appear to be tradeoffs between a male's phenotypic quality and willingness to invest, as male's attractiveness is associated with a much greater likelihood of pursuing a short-term mating strategy and greater sexual success with females Burley, ; Gangestad and Simpson, ; Landolt et al.
Thus, as the quality of the male increases, he is less likely to have to invest the time and resources involved in a long-term relationship in order to gain sexual access. In addition, the existing data lend initial support for the predictions that individuals base their optimal mating decisions at least in part by a comparison of their own mate value and that of their opponents and prospective mates, and that these relative values guide mating transactions predictions 4, 5, 6, and 7.
For example, researchers have found that individuals' self-perceived mate value shifts depending on the quality of same-sexed individuals to whom they are exposed. In one such study, the self-assessed mate value of females was found to be adversely affected by exposure to highly physically attractive women, whereas men's self-assessed mate value went down when they were exposed to highly socially dominant men Cash et al. As predicted by the models, although individuals' opinions on their own absolute attractiveness females and dominance males did not change, their self-perceived mate value did.
Furthermore, as predicted by our models, psychologists have shown that similar contrast effects occur when individuals are judging the attractiveness of members of the opposite sex.
Kenrick and Gutierres have shown that men exposed to a television program depicting highly attractive females rated photographs of average women as being significantly less attractive than did a comparable control group. More work in this area needs to be done to determine whether this effect occurs in female subjects as well. It has been suggested that these comparisons between self and others play an active role in courtship strategies and decisions, as self evaluations of mate value are highly predictive of the qualities desired in a long-term mate Kenrick et al.
Individuals with higher mate value expect more from potential mates, as such individuals are able to command higher value mates in the mating market.
In a similar vein, researchers have shown that males also tend to change their level of commitment to their partners relative to the quality of members of the opposite sex to which they are exposed. In one such study, after groups of men looked at photographs of either highly attractive women or women of average attractiveness, they were asked to evaluate their commitment to their current romantic partners Kenrick et al.
The men who had viewed the pictures of attractive women thereafter judged their actual partners to be less attractive than did the men who had viewed pictures of women who were average in attractiveness. In addition, the men who had viewed the attractive women also rated themselves as less committed to, less satisfied with, and less serious about their actual partners. This is exactly what is expected to occur based on prediction 7.
Individuals are expected to be constantly be assessing their own value relative to other players of both sexes, and the amount of resources that a male is willing to invest will decrease as the assessed value of alternative mates goes up. It is further interesting to note that the quantitative theory underlying these models is, to our knowledge, the first of its kind to unify these separate bodies of data. Although more precise research bearing on predictions yielded from the models is necessary, the existing data are, thus far, a remarkable fit to the theory.
Hypergyny occurs in societies in which, owing to striking wealth inequalities, the number of high-value females greatly exceeds the number of comparably valued males. Indeed, in areas meeting this criterion, the novel prediction that females will have less leverage in mating transactions and will receive a lesser resource incentive, appears to be supported.
For instance, the Ache of eastern Paraguay have a male-to-female sex ratio of roughly , and men are documented as being highly promiscuous, with individuals averaging 11 sex partners during their lifetimes Hill and Hurtado, In addition, females in hypergynous societies receive smaller resource incentives than would a comparably valued female in a nonhypergynous society.
Females in such societies typically have to share their mate's resources with cowives in addition to having to provide a sum of resources dowry to acquire a high-quality mate. Indeed, this practice often times leads to dowry competition among females' families to ensure that she gets mated to a suitable male Dickemann, Our models of resource transactions between mates have much in common with transactional models of reproductive skew and paternity skew Shellman-Reeve and Reeve, in which reproduction is traded for cooperative benefits.
Other theoretical approaches might be usefully applied to the analysis of games between potential mates e. If the transactional predictions ultimately fail, then these alternative approaches may need to be pursued. More data are undoubtedly needed to test the specific predictions generated by our models.
In addition, there are many corollaries to the model predictions that deserve testing. For instance, one could test the prediction that males looking for a mate may attempt to facilitate such a search by favoring attendance at social functions that are primarily attended by females.
A similar prediction can made about females attempting to meet a mate. Females looking for a mate may facilitate such a search by attending functions primarily attended my males. Thus, the existence of bidding wars generates a positive force for grouping in humans, but the favored group composition differs between males and females. A further corollary is that paired mates may often disagree on which kinds of social functions to attend; that is, females can increase their resource incentives by surrounding themselves with many high-quality males, and males can reduce their required resource incentives to their mates by surrounding themselves with many high-quality females.
These are but two examples of the types of predictions generated both directly and indirectly by our models that could potentially provide new insight into the human mating psyche. This model is the first step in modeling human mating transactions, and as such, it is certainly not yet exhaustive in the variables included or in the situations modeled.
For instance, our current model assumes that individuals infer statistically expected mate value accurately and are not vulnerable to systematic deception about mate value, assumptions that may not always be met in human mating systems.
Mate value signaling, false signaling, and signal receiving are certainly salient issues in human mating, and will be examined incorporating modern evolutionary theories of communication in a subsequent paper Hill SE and Reeve HK, in preparation. Furthermore, we recognize the need to incorporate the multitude of costs and benefits associated with leaving a potential mate. Costs accumulated from social stigmatization and loss of resource investment that accompany mate loss, and the potential fitness benefits acquired from bet-hedging via genetic diversification are but a few examples of these unmentioned factors.
Additional factors not yet incorporated in these initial stages of the model's development are diminishing fitness returns for increasing resource investment in offspring and the influence of kin on mate choice, both easily incorporated in extensions of the model. Furthermore, mate choice may be affected by time constraints and the costs associated with mate choice, as demonstrated by Johnstone Despite the theoretical economy of our model, it appears able to integrate and successfully account for many of the major features of human mating decisions see above discussion of empirical evidence.
Human mating strategies are the predictable outputs of cognitive algorithms shaped by natural selection to incorporate evolutionarily-relevant contextual cues and generate evolutionarily stable behaviors appropriate to each context. By simultaneously incorporating quality, resources, and outside options, our models of such strategies appear able to account for differences between the sexes, strategic pluralism within each sex, and large-scale properties of mating systems such as positive assortment with respect to mate value.
Our quantitative models confirm the reasoning of existing verbal models Buss and Schmitt, ; Gangestad and Simpson, and generate novel and detailed predictions, in addition to paving the way for a comprehensive theory of within-pair conflict, expected duration of pair-bonds, communication between mates, and a new and deeper theory of mating systems in different human societies.
We thank D. Buss, J. Duntley, J. Jeon, R. Jackson, and S. Conlan for their helpful comments. We also thank three anonymous referees for their constructive comments.
Personality and mate selection in personal ads: evolutionary preferences in a public mate selection process. J Soc Behav Personality 10 : Bateman AJ, Intra-sexual selection in Drosophila. Heredity 2 : Blau PM, Exchange and power in social life.
New York: John Wiley. Borgerhof Mulder M, Reproductive success in three Kipsigis chorts. Chicago: Chicago University Press; — Burley N, Sexual selection for aesthetic traits in species with biparental care. Am Nat : Buss, DM, Sex differences in human mate preferences: evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behav Brain Sci 12 : 1 Buss DM, Evolution of desire. New York: Basic Books.
Sexual strategies theory: historical origins and current status. J Sex Res 31 : 19 Evolutionary psychology. The breedings are amazing, and you can create custom pets to look exactly how you want.
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